Mėnesio pavadinimas hebrajiškai reiškia atsinaujinimą, ir tai yra giliai simboliška. Tokiu būdu kiekvienas jaunas mėnuo yra nauja pradžia, kuri liturgiškai palydima Hallel malda, kurioje šlovinamas dangaus kūnų Kūrėjas. Kita vertus, pagal Torą – tai pats pirmas įsakas, kurį gavo visa toji bendrija. Roš Chodeš yra paties kalendoriaus egzistavimo pamatas, kurio dėka įmanomas egzistavimas tiek kalendoriaus, tiek ir švenčių.
Doc.dr. Aušra Pažeraitė
Midrašų rinkinyje Mekhilta de Rabbi Išmael skaitome Talmudo išminčių diskusiją, liečiančią eilutę iš praėjusio šabo skaitinių dalies Bo (Iš 12:2): „Šis Jaunas Mėnulis bus jums… Rabis Išmaelis pasakė: „Mozė parodė Izraeliui jauną mėnulį ir pasakė: „Šitaip jis atrodys ir turėsite prisilaikyti jauno mėnulio per kartas“. Rabis Akiva pasakė: „Tai vienas iš trijų dalykų, kurie Mozei kėlė klausimų, ir į visus juos ha-Makom [vienas iš būdų Talmudo išminčiams nurodyti Kūrėją] – A.P.] rodė savo pirštu. Kaip antai: „Ir šitie jums bus nešvarūs… “ (Kun 11:29), ir kaip antai: „Ir šitaip veikia žvakidė [maase menora]“ (Sk 8:4). Kai kas sako, kad Mozei taip pat sunku buvo suprasti ir ritualinį skerdimą, nes yra pasakyta: „Šitai yra, ką darysi ant altoriaus“ (Iš 29:38).
Vienas iš šiuolaikinių žydų minties istorikų, Danielius Boyarinas nurodo šį midrašą kaip vieną iš gausių pavyzdžių, kuris prikišamai, vos ne pirštu parodo, kokiu būdu šv. Augustinas buvo teisus, teigdamas, kad žydai Šventą Raštą skaito „kūniškai“. Tačiau kūniškumas šiuo atveju nereiškia prisirišimo prie materialumo ir kūniškumo dėl jo paties. Tai tam tikras metodas, būdas realizuoti dvasinį gyvenimą, religinį gyvenimą, atsiremiant į tai, kas yra čia pat, konkretu. Ravas Moše Rozenšteinas iš Kelmės, aiškindamas, kuo skiriasi pasaulio išminčiai nuo Toros išminčių, pateikė pavyzdį paukštelio, kuris kartą įskrido pro langą į vienus namus, nerado kelio išskristi atgal, nes pagal prigimtį, natūraliai, ieškojo kelio aukštai, kai tuo tarpu tereikėjo nusileisti žemyn. Taip ir pasaulio išminčiai, gali taip aukštai pakilti savo išmintimi, kad nuo jų tampa paslėpta tai, kas „žemai“, paprastos tiesos, kurios gali padėti rasti atsakymus. (Žinojimo pagrindai, I, 24).
Kalbant apie mėnesio pradžią – pagal nurodytą eilutę galima spręsti, kad naujas mėnuo turi prasidėti pastebint kažką konkretaus, t. y. jaunatį. Mėnesio pavadinimas hebrajiškai reiškia atsinaujinimą, ir tai yra giliai simboliška. Tokiu būdu kiekvienas jaunas mėnuo yra nauja pradžia, kuri liturgiškai palydima Hallel malda, kurioje šlovinamas dangaus kūnų Kūrėjas. Kita vertus, pagal Torą – tai pats pirmas įsakas, kurį gavo visa toji bendrija. Roš Chodeš yra paties tokio kalendoriaus egzistavimo pamatas, kurio dėka įmanomas egzistavimas tiek kalendoriaus, tiek ir švenčių.
Žydų kalendorius turi atlikti dvi funkcijas: lokalizuoti religines šventes, kad jos vyktų laiku, kuris nurodytas Toroje, o ne savavališkai atliekant manipuliacijas kalendoriaus datomis, ir antra –susiderinti su saulės metais. Tai išvedama iš Įst 16,1: „Laikysiesi pavasario mėnesio ir atliksi Pesach […], nes pavasario mėnesį VIEŠPATS, tavo Dievas, išvedė tave iš Egipto naktį“, nes jei bus prisilaikoma tik mėnulio metų, kurie yra vienuolika dienų trumpesni už saulės metus, tas mėnuo kasmet slinktų atgal ir atsidurtų tai žiemą, tai rudenį, tai vasarą. Tokiu būdu, tam, kad būtų išpildyti abu reikalavimai – ir mėnulio fazių pokyčių, kurie leistų švęsti atsinaujinimą per kiekvieną jaunatį, ir kad Pesacho šventė vyktų kasmet pavasarį, reikia derinti mėnulio ir saulės kalendorius. Tačiau tai nėra taip paprasta. Pasaulyje žinoma visa eilė derinimo sistemų.
Mėnulio judėjimo pokyčiai nėra tolygūs, jei kalbėsime apie apsisukimo apie žemę tarpsnius. Skirtumai priklauso nuo daugelio faktorių, – tiek nuo žemės ir saulės traukų, tiek ir įvairių žemės paviršiaus nelygumų (vandenynų ir kalnų). Palyginimui – daugelis kitų kalendorinių sistemų yra sutartinės, apytikrės, tiek saulės, tiek mėnulio, tiek ir kitokie kalendoriai, skaičiuojantys laiką apytikriai, ir dėl to dažnai per eilę metų neatitikimas tarp kalendoriaus ir realių dangaus kūnų padėties bei sezoninių pokyčių žemėje tampa toks didelis, kad pavasario mėnuo gali nusikelti į rudenį, ar žiemos – į vasarą. Taip atsitinka, pavyzdžiui, su musulmonų naudojamu mėnulio kalendoriumi, kai kuriais zoroastrų kalendoriais.
Senovės Egipte buvo naudojamasi saulės metų kalendoriumi (365 dienos) ir Sirijaus metų kalendoriumi. Saulės kalendorių (civilinį) būdavo siekiama derinti su tropiniais (žemės ūkio darbų) metais, kurie skyrėsi ketvirčiu dienos, tačiau tropiniai metai daugiau ar mažiau sutapdavo su Sirijaus metais, kurie prasidėdavo liepos 19 dieną (pagal Julijaus kalendorių), kai būdavo stebimas šios žvaigždės kilimas. Tokiu būdu metai po metų didėjo atotrūkis tarp saulės metų, t. y. civilinio kalendoriaus, ir Sirijaus (bei žemės ūkio darbų) metų, ir apsukdavo pilną ratą (365 dienas) per 1460 Sirijaus laikotarpio metų, kol vėl abu sutapdavo.
Dabar plačiausiai naudojamas Grigaliaus kalendorius buvo įvestas 1582 metais vykdant Julijaus kalendoriaus reformą dėl įvykusio pastebimo atotrūkio tarp realios dangaus kūnų padėties žemės atžvilgiu ir Julijaus kalendoriaus, pagal kurį saulės metus sudarė 365,25 dienos, nors realiai juos turėtų sudaryti 365,2425 dienos. 1582 metais, įgyvendinant reformą, atotrūkis siekė 10 dienų, o šiandien – jau 13, ir jis vis didėja. Grigaliaus kalendorius vis susikaupiantį suapvalintų iki 365 dienų laiko likutį, kompensuoja pridedant papildomą dieną kas ketverius metus (išskyrus metus, kai jų skaičius dalijasi iš 100, bet nesidalija iš 400, pvz. 1900).
Mėnulio metus sudaro 354,37 dienos, ir todėl jie apytikriai vienuolika dienų trumpesni nei saulės metai. Norint, kad atitiktų saulės metus, reikia periodiškai pridėti papildomą dienų skaičių. Žydų kalendoriuje tai vienintelis periodiškumas, kai pridedami papildomai 7 trylikti mėnesiai 19 metų cikle (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 ir 19). Papildomas mėnuo pridedamas kaip antras Adaro mėnuo. Šis ciklas žydų tradicijoje vadinamas Ravo Ados bar Ahavos periodu, kurį sudaro 235x(29 dienos 12 valandų ir 793 dalys) / 19, t.y. 365 dienos 5 valandos ir 997,6315789 dalys, o išvertus į labiau suprantamą skaičių kalbą – 365,2468222 dienos. Šioje lygtyje naudojamas dėmuo 29 d. 12 val. 793 dalys yra vidutinė mėnulio mėnesio trukmė, kurią nurodė Talmudo išminčius Rabbanas Gamalielis, kaip rašoma traktate Roš ha-Šana: „Aš perėmiau tradiciją iš savo tėvo tėvo namų: mėnulio atsinaujinimas įvyksta ne mažiau kaip kas 29 dienos su puse, du trečdaliai valandos ir 73 dalys iš ankstesnės valandos“. Išvertus: 29 dienos, 12 valandų, 44 minutės ir 33,3 sekundės (palyginti su astronominiu mėnesiu, kurį sudaro 29 d. 12 val. 44 min. ir 2,8 s., iš kur galima matyti, kad išminčių nustatytas skaičius yra nepaprastai tikslus).
Kad būtų aiškiau – vietoj minučių ir sekundžių išminčiai naudojo kitą matą, – 1080 dalių. Šis skaičius patogus tuo, kad dalosi iš 2, 3, 4 , 5, 6, 8, 9 ir 10. Tokiu būdu minutę sudaro 18 dalių. Mėnesius turi sudaryti pilnos savaitės, o metus – pilni mėnesiai, tam, kad atitiktų Toros reikalavimus. Mėnesio pradžia (Roš Chodeš) būtinai turi sutapti su jauno mėnulio pasirodymu. Iki imant taikyti skaičiavimus, siekiant nustatyti kiekvieno mėnesio pradžią, buvo taikoma liudininkų praktika. Tai buvo įmanoma tada, kada veikė Sanhedrinas, aukščiausias teismas, kuriame tam, kad nutarimas būtų galiojantis, turėjo posėdžiauti teisėjai, kurie buvo gavę rankų uždėjimo patvirtinimą (smicha), kuris turėjo siekti nenutrūkstama tiesioginio perdavimo grandine patį Mozę. Kaip rašoma traktate Roš haŠana, kiekvieną kartą, baigiantis 29-tai mėnesio dienai, būdavo stebimas dangus, ar pasirodys jaunatis. Naujo mėnesio pradžią konstatuodavo Sanhedrinas, jei atvykdavo bent du patikimi liudininkai (kas laikytini patikimais, kas ne – tai atskiras klausimas, kuris taip pat buvo plačiai aptariamas), kurie regėjo patekant jauną mėnulį Izraelio žemėje. Sanhedrinas kiekvieną kartą turėdavo nustatyti matymo aplinkybes ir, liudijimams sutapus, 30-tos dieną teismas paskelbdavo „Pašventina“, taip paskelbiant, kad mėnuo buvo nepilnas, t. y. tik iš 29 dienų, ir kad ši diena yra pirmoji naujo mėnesio diena, t. y. Roš Chodeš. Jei mėnuo nepasirodydavo nei 29, nei 30-tos dienos pabaigoje, būdavo paskelbiama, kad tas mėnesis pilnas, ir kad kita diena bet kuriuo atveju bus naujo mėnesio pradžia. Naujo mėnesio pradžios pašventinimas suteikdavo šventumą to mėnesio šventėms. Pridėti ar ne tryliktą mėnesį, spęsdavo keli Sanhedrino nariai, atsižvelgdami į įvairius faktorius.
Priėmus sprendimą dėl naujo mėnesio pradžios, tą reikėdavo paskelbti visiems žydams, kad spėtų pasiruošti šventei. Beveik visos šventės (išskyrus Roš haŠaną ir Jom Kipūrą) švenčiamos mėnesio viduryje. Galimybė, kad toliau nuo Jeruzalės gyvenantys žydai per vėlai gaus žinią, ir nebus tikri, kurią konkrečiai dieną reikia švęsti šventę, išminčiai nusprendė, kad už Izraelio žemės ribų šventės paprastai turėtų būti švenčiamos dvi dienas (išskyrus Jom Kipūrą).
Po to, kai buvo sugriauta II Šventykla, o Sanhedrinas perkeltas į Javnę, ir dar po kitos katastrofos – Bar Kochbos sukilimo, galiausiai, po to, kai Romos imperijoje ėmė įsitvirtinti Krikščionybė, užtikrinti tiek liudininkų praktiką, tiek ir Sanhedrino sudėtį, kad būtų rabinų, turinčių autoritetingąją smichą, darėsi vis sunkiau, o tam, kad būtų išvengta situacijos, jei nebebus galimybės patvirtinti naujo mėnesio pradžios, prie Hillelio II (4119, arba kitaip – 358/9 metais) buvo apskaičiuotas ir suformuotas kalendorius būsimiems šimtmečiams.
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